Biodiversity stabilises ecosystems because different species respond to environmental perturbations in different ways, which stabilises overall ecosystem function (de Mazancourt et al. 2013, Tilman 1996).

Soil porosity pertains to the interstitial voids existing between soil particles and aggregates, serving as conduits through which water and air can move. These voids create essential habitats for the proliferation of roots and microorganisms (Nimmo, 2004; Osman, 2013). Porosity exerts significant influence over a multitude of critical soil processes, which depend on pore dimensions, shapes, and continuity (Pagliai et al., 2004).

The loss of species of conservation interest or endemics should be assigned higher value than the loss of common species (Buckland et al. 2005). Metrics such as species richness, evenness and diversity can be insensitive to the loss of rare species; for example, at smaller scales conversion from one habitat to another could cause loss of endemic species, but overall richness and evenness could still increase (Buckland et al. 2005).

Changes in abundance, and identity, of species have greater functional consequences for an ecosystem than changes in simple metrics such as species richness (Hillebrand et al. 2018, Buckland et al. 2005). Trends in mean abundance can detect early signals of species decline and are less sensitive to demographic stochasticity (population fluctuations that occur by random chance as a result of births, deaths and migration) (Santini et al. 2017, van Strien et al. 2012).

Natural seedling regeneration and its diversity is a key indicator of forest regeneration, persistence and resilience (Chazdon et al. 2023). In UK forests browsing impacts from species such as deer can inhibit seedling regeneration and establishment (Gullett et al. 2023).

Similarity is a measure of species composition compared to a reference community. It is important to measure composition as well as diversity, because diversity metrics based on species richness and abundance can remain constant as species assemblage changes (Santini et al. 2017, Magurran et al. 2018, Magurran 2021).

Soil moisture represents a key driver of vegetation characteristics, operating at both species and community levels. It has a substantial influence on crop yields in agriculture. The quantification of soil moisture content gives insights into critical aspects of soil dynamics, encompassing its water storage capacity, hydraulic properties, and chemical and biological activities (Le Roux et al., 2013; Soil Testing Methods Global Soil Doctors Programme, FAO).

Soil organic carbon plays a pivotal role in influencing crucial functional processes within the soil, encompassing nutrient storage, particularly for nitrogen, water retention capacity, and the stability of soil aggregates. Furthermore, it exerts a substantial impact on microbial activity, thus establishing itself as an integral constituent of soil fertility (Cardoso et al., 2013).

Soil respiration is a process wherein soil microorganisms break down organic matter, releasing carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere (Allen et al., 2011). It has been recognized as an indicator of ecosystem function and soil health, closely linked to carbon and nutrient cycling, regulation of CO2 emissions, and microbial activity (Bispo et al., 2009; Griffiths et al., 2016; Arias et al., 2005).

Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles into distinct geometric patterns (Dexter, 1988). Soil structure, in conjunction with soil texture, collectively governs parameters such as total porosity, pore size and distribution, thereby influencing the retention and movement of water within the soil matrix. The complexity of soil structure arises from a confluence of diverse factors, including environmental conditions, soil management practices, mineral composition, textural attributes, the presence of soil organic matter, pedogenic (soil-forming) processes, microbial activity, and the prevailing moisture regime (Bronick & Lal, 2005; Osman, 2013; Pagliai et al., 2004).

Species diversity captures the richness and relative abundance of species (Magurran 2021). Species diversity metrics can be applied at different scales. Alpha diversity is the species diversity within a focal site and applies at smaller (community) scales (Magurran et al. 2021, Chiarucci et al. 2011). Beta diversity captures differences in species composition among sites, and is usually applied at larger scales e.g. to capture differences in species composition among habitat types within an area (Chiarucci et al. 2011). Gamma diversity captures overall species diversity at landscape scales (Anderson et al. 2018).

Soil texture is extremely important to measure as it is intricately associated with a plethora of soil attributes and behaviours. The proportions of sand, silt, and clay within a soil matrix have considerable influence over various other critical soil properties, encompassing aeration, compaction, drainage characteristics, water-holding capacity and the decomposition of organic matter, among others (Merrington, 2006; Schoenholtz et al., 2000).