Habitat heterogeneity at the landscape scale (compositional and configurational heterogeneity) has a positive relationship with many taxa (Maskell et al. 2019, Honnay 2003). Spatial variation in habitats can maintain distinct communities by increasing beta-diversity within landscapes (Deane et al. 2020, Veech and Crist 2007) (see Species diversity for explanation of beta diversity).

Measuring litter decomposition allows for the comparison of decomposition rates in an ecosystem across different time periods (Arias et al., 2005).

Mammals have important influences on ecosystem processes: nutrient cycling, energy flow, top-down influences (e.g. predation), bottom-up influences (e.g. herbivory), seed dispersal (Lacher et al. 2019). Biomass provides an indication of abundance and whether species are declining or increasing (Damuth 2023). Biomass can give a more meaningful assessment of the impact of a species on an ecosystem, allowing comparison between species with different body sizes (Greenspoon et al. 2023).

Mycorrhizal fungi establish symbiotic relationships with plant roots, enhancing the plant’s nutrient uptake, particularly for essential elements like phosphorus. This symbiosis is crucial for robust plant growth and overall ecosystem productivity (Creamer et al., 2016; Neiendam Nielsen & Winding, 2002).

Organic nitrogen mineralization involves the microbial conversion of organic nitrogen into mineral forms, primarily ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3-), by a diverse array of soil microorganisms. This process reflects the turnover of organic material in the soil and the availability of indigenous nitrogen pools to plants (Neiendam Nielsen & Winding, 2002). It is significant for ecosystem services such as water quality, plant production, and climate control (Lehmann et al., 2020).

Nematodes play a crucial role within the soil fauna community, engaging in interactions with various organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and microarthropods. Their involvement aids in essential soil processes, including nutrient cycling, decomposition, maintenance of plant health, and soil structure (Neher, 2001).

Understanding the nitrogen supply stored in the SOM is fundamental to understanding how well the soil can support the microbial populations crucial for sustaining vital soil functions, including nutrient cycling, structural stability, water infiltration and storage, as well as the breakdown of organic residues, among other critical processes (Merrington 2006; Creamer et al., 2016).

Spatial variation in nutrient supply rates can influence the distribution of organisms (Gravel et al. 2010). Cycles of key nutrients underpin persistence of biodiversity, ecosystem functions and delivery of ecosystem services (Lavelle et al. 2005). Simplification of landscapes and habitat loss has disrupted natural nutrient cycles and agriculture can lead to nutrient oversupply and leakiness or nutrient depletion (Lavelle et al. 2005). Diversity of species and functional groups are required to maintain nutrient cycles (Chapin III et al. 2000, Lavelle et al. 2005). Alterations in nutrient cycling are observed from plot to landscape scales and are driven by small- to large-scale mechanisms (Lavelle et al. 2005).

Spatial and temporal landscape heterogeneity determines the structure and functioning of nature, spatial distribution of organisms and long-term population persistence (Johst et al. 2011, Pickett and Rogers 1997, Gravel et al. 2010, Bascompte et al. 2002). Turnover is an important consideration alongside patch quality, area and connectivity (Heinrichs et al. 2015, Fleishman et al. 2002).

Alongside total area of habitat, habitat configuration influences biodiversity at the landscape scale (Fahrig et al. 2022, Deane et al. 2020, Fletcher et al. 2018). Evidence is still equivocal on whether a Single Large or Several Small (SLOSS) patches support higher biodiversity (Deane et al. 2020). Multiple small patches at the landscape scale can increase beta diversity, increasing overall landscape-scale biodiversity (Deane et al. 2020). However, other evidence points to the importance of large habitat areas for maintaining biodiversity (Fletcher et al. 2018). The distribution of habitat area across multiple habitat types within a landscape is an important driver of biodiversity change (Proença and Pereira 2013).

Soil pH indicates the soil’s acidity or alkalinity. Its inherent value is influenced by the chemical composition of the soil, but it can change due to both natural factors and agricultural activities. The soil’s pH influences the accessibility of nutrients in the soil by plants, affects microbial activity, influences flora and fauna species diversity, and has been associated with leached soils (Cardoso et al., 2013; Creamer et al., 2016; Gardi et al., 2009; Merrington, 2006).

Biotic interactions structure ecosystems and underpin many ecosystem functions (Kaiser-Bunbury et al. 2015). Interactions related to specific ecosystem functions include pollination, seed dispersal and predation, of these pollination is one of the most tractable to measure (Kaiser-Bunbury 2015).